The Fall of Heaven Read online

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  To My Friends

  PEOPLE

  The Pahlavi Family

  Mohammad Reza Shah (1919–1980). King-Emperor of Iran (1941–1979). Son of Reza Shah (1878–1944) and Taj ol-Moluk (1896–1982), whose marriage also produced Princess Shams (1917–1996), Princess Ashraf (1919–2016), and Prince Ali Reza (1922–1954). Mohammad Reza Shah married three times and fathered five children:

  1. Princess Fawzia of Egypt (1921–2013). Queen-Empress of Iran (1941–1948). Daughter of King Faud I of Egypt (1868–1936) and sister of King Farouk I of Egypt (1920–1965). Her marriage to the Shah produced one daughter:

  Princess Shahnaz (b. 1940). Married (1) Ardeshir Zahedi (b. 1928), son of General Fazlollah Zahedi (1897–1963), who led the 1953 army coup against Mohammad Mossadeq (1882–1967). (2) Khosrow Djahanbani (1942–2014), scion of a wellborn family whose conversion to fundamentalist Islam scandalized the Imperial Court.

  2. Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiary (1932–2001). Queen-Empress of Iran (1951–1958). Her childless marriage to the Shah ended in divorce.

  3. Farah Diba (b. 1938). Queen-Empress of Iran (1959–1979). Her marriage to the Shah produced two sons and two daughters:

  Crown Prince Reza (b. 1960). Married Yasmine Etemad-Amini (b. 1968). The couple has three children: Princess Noor (b. 1992), Princess Iman (b. 1993), and Princess Farah (b. 2004).

  Princess Farahnaz (b. 1963).

  Prince Ali Reza (1966–2011). His relationship with Raha Didevar produced Princess Iryana Leila (b. 2011).

  Princess Leila (1970–2001).

  The Imperial Court and Government

  Mahnaz Afkhami (b. 1941). Appointed in 1975 as only the second minister of women’s affairs in the world.

  Amir Aslan Afshar (b. 1922). Iran’s ambassador to Austria, the United States, Mexico, and West Germany. Served as the last grand master of ceremonies at the Imperial Court.

  Asadollah Alam (1919–1978). Prime Minister (1962–1964) who crushed Khomeini’s June 1963 rebellion and served loyally as minister of the Imperial Court (1967–1977).

  Jamshid Amuzegar (b. 1923). Minister of finance (1965–1974) and minister of the interior (1974–1977). Appointed prime minister in 1977 to stabilize Iran’s economy.

  Gholam Reza Azhari (1917–2001). Chief of staff of the Imperial Iranian Armed Forces (1971–1978). Appointed prime minister in November 1978 to head the military government.

  Shahpur Bakhtiar (1914–1991). Opposition politician who served as the Shah’s last prime minister. Assassinated in Paris by agents of the Islamic Republic.

  Hossein Fardust (1917–1987). The Shah’s closest childhood friend. Served as deputy head of Savak (1968–1978) and betrayed him to the revolutionaries.

  Reza Ghotbi (b. 1938). The Queen’s cousin and close confidant. Served as director of National Iranian Radio and Television for a decade until September 1978.

  Amir Abbas Hoveyda (1919–1979). Prime minister of Iran (1965–1977) and minister of the Imperial Court (1977–1978). Executed by the revolutionaries.

  Nasser Moghadam (1921–1979). Led Savak’s Third Directorate and G2 military intelligence before succeeding Nasiri as new Savak chief in June 1978. Executed by the revolutionaries.

  Nematollah Nasiri (1911–1979). Commander of the Imperial Guard, head of National Police, and chief of Savak from 1965 to 1978 who favored tough measures to combat subversion. Appointed Iran’s ambassador to Pakistan in June 1978. Recalled and arrested for corruption. Executed by the revolutionaries.

  Seyyed Hossein Nasr (b. 1933). Scholar of Islam who served as the last head of Queen Farah’s Special Bureau. Favored Islamizing the monarchy to prevent revolution.

  Hassan Pakravan (1911–1979). Chief of Savak who reformed the security forces and intervened to prevent Khomeini’s execution in 1963. Executed by the revolutionaries.

  Parviz Sabeti (b. 1936). Law graduate who rose to lead Savak’s Third Directorate in the midseventies. Warned about the dangers of corruption and ill-timed liberalization.

  Jafar Sharif-Emami (1910–1996). Prime minister (1960–1961) and president of the Senate (1964–1978). Served as prime minister from August to November 1978.

  Ardeshir Zahedi (b. 1928). Son of General Fazlollah Zahedi, who married Princess Shahnaz. Served as foreign minister and ambassador to London and Washington.

  The Shia Ulama or Clerical Leadership

  Grand Ayatollah Abol Qasem Khoi (1899–1992). Paramount marja of the Shia faithful since 1970. Opposed Khomeini’s ideas on religious government. Received Queen Farah on her ill-fated trip to Najaf in November 1978.

  Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1902–1989). Leader of hard-line group within the Shia ulama opposed to the 1906 Constitution and the Pahlavi state. Formulated the concept of Islamic government called velayat-e faqih. Exiled in 1964 for trying to overthrow the Shah. Returned to Iran in February 1979, seized power, and established an Islamic theocracy.

  Imam Musa Sadr (1928–?). Iranian-born, charismatic leader of Lebanon’s Shia community opposed to Khomeini’s doctrine of velayat-e faqih. Disappeared in Libya in August 1978 en route to a secret meeting in West Germany with the Shah’s envoy.

  Grand Ayatollah Kazem Shariatmadari (1905–1986). Senior marja inside Iran who led the “quietist” ulama. Supported the 1906 Constitution. Opposed Khomeini’s velayat-e faqih. Tried and failed to prevent the overthrow of the monarchy.

  The Revolutionaries

  Mehdi Bazargan (1908–1995). Former National Front official who led the breakaway Islamist group Liberation Movement of Iran. Held secret talks with U.S. embassy staff in an effort to win American support. Briefly held the post of prime minister of Iran after the revolution.

  Abolhassan Banisadr (b. 1933). Leftist opposition figure who plotted revolution from exile in Paris. Persuaded Khomeini to lead an umbrella group of anti-Pahlavi opposition forces. Elected and later deposed as the Islamic Republic’s first president.

  Sadegh Ghotzbadegh (1936–1982). Leftist who cultivated close ties to radical Arab regimes and Yasser Arafat’s PLO. Facilitated foreign aid to the anti-Pahlavi opposition. Foreign minister of the Islamic Republic later executed for plotting to overthrow Khomeini.

  United States Embassy

  George Lambrakis (b. 1931). Led Embassy Tehran’s political section under Ambassador Sullivan. Held secret meetings with opposition leaders opposed to the Shah.

  John Stempel (b. 1938). Lambrakis’s deputy. Liaised with Soviet diplomat Guennady Kazankin. Cultivated Mehdi Bazargan and other prominent opposition figures.

  William Sullivan (1922–2013). Ambassador to Iran. Oversaw secret talks with opposition leaders even as he pressed the Shah to restrain his security forces. Favored the Shah’s departure from Iran and Khomeini’s return from exile.

  The White House

  Zbigniew Brzezinski (b. 1928). White House national security adviser. Overestimated the Shah’s durability
and underestimated the threat posed by militant Islam.

  Jimmy Carter (b. 1924). President whose ambivalence toward the Shah led to a debilitating split among his advisers about how to manage the collapse of the Pahlavi regime.

  Cyrus Vance (1917–2002). Secretary of state who harbored reservations about the Shah. Pressed the Shah to restrain his security forces and opposed U.S. military involvement in Iran.

  EVENTS OF THE 1978–1979 REVOLUTION

  1978

  JANUARY

  1:

  Carter leaves Iran after one-day state visit.

  7:

  Ettelaat publishes article critical of Khomeini.

  9:

  Shah flies to Aswan to meet with Egypt’s Sadat.

  Khomeini supporters riot in Qom.

  14–15:

  Weekend of religious unrest in several cities.

  27:

  UFO sighted over Tehran.

  FEBRUARY

  1:

  Shah takes part in “satellite summit.”

  11:

  Shah, Queen Farah open Tehran’s new Museum of Persian Carpets.

  18:

  Riots in northern city of Tabriz.

  27:

  Shah dismisses religious protesters: “The caravan passes and the dog barks.”

  MARCH

  10–13:

  Shah, Queen Farah tour Ahwaz and Abadan.

  13:

  Israeli diplomats leave Kish Island, voice concern about stability in Iran.

  21:

  Start of Nowruz, Persian New Year festivities.

  27–31:

  Third wave of urban unrest with arson attacks, mob violence.

  Shariatmadari urges Sabeti to assassinate Khomeini.

  APRIL

  1–3:

  Final three days of Nowruz disturbances.

  21:

  Security forces ambush, arrest students near village of Darakeh.

  28:

  Shah meets with Ronald Reagan.

  MAY

  6:

  Shah returns to Tehran from inspection tour of southern seaports.

  9–10:

  Fourth wave of urban unrest spreads to Tehran’s southern suburbs.

  11:

  Shah approves limited crackdown by security forces.

  12:

  Shah opens dialogue with Shariatmadari and moderate ulama.

  13:

  Shah’s press conference fails to reassure middle-class opinion.

  Security chiefs meet to plot strategy to handle unrest.

  16–22:

  Shah, Queen Farah on state visit to Bulgaria and Hungary.

  25:

  U.S. diplomat Stempel’s first meeting with Bazargan.

  30:

  Stempel’s second meeting with Bazargan.

  28:

  Shah, Queen Farah fly to Mashad on inspection tour.

  JUNE

  1:

  Shah, Queen Farah return from Khorassan Province.

  5:

  Anniversary of 1963 uprising passes without incident.

  6:

  Shah reforms Savak, replaces Nasiri with Moghadam.

  Shah meets with Nahavandi’s liberals, promises “maximum liberty.”

  12:

  Israel’s Lubrani predicts overthrow of Iranian monarchy.

  19:

  Forty-day memorial protests contained, no protest deaths reported.

  JULY

  3:

  Nasiri tells Lebanon’s al-Khalil that Musa Sadr wants to help Shah.

  9:

  U.S. diplomat Nass, Huyser visit Shah at Nowshahr.

  18:

  Soviet diplomat Kazankin tells Stempel Shah has cancer.

  Stempel holds third meeting with Bazargan.

  21:

  Death of Haj Sheikh Ahmad Kafi triggers riots in Mashad.

  31:

  Disappearance of Isfahan’s Ayatollah Jalal Al-Din Taheri.

  AUGUST

  1:

  First day of riots in Isfahan.

  5:

  First day of Ramadan.

  In Constitution Day speech, Shah promises democracy and elections.

  10–11:

  Insurrection, martial law in Isfahan.

  11:

  Griffith warns Brzezinski of instability in Iran.

  13:

  Tehran’s Khansalar Restaurant bombed in terrorist attack.

  17:

  Shah holds press conference, admits he underestimated unrest.

  19:

  National Uprising Day.

  Arson attack on Rex Cinema in Abadan kills more than 420.

  27:

  Shah replaces Amuzegar with Sharif-Emami.

  29:

  Shah hosts China’s Hua.

  Saddam Hussein offers to assassinate Khomeini.

  31:

  Musa Sadr is missing in Tripoli.

  SEPTEMBER

  4:

  Eid-e Fetr march draws large crowds in downtown Tehran.

  Shah decides he has lost the farr or mantle of kingship.

  7:

  Pro-Khomeini forces stage rally in central Tehran.

  Government approves martial law.

  8:

  Violence erupts at Jaleh Square, 88 killed.

  10:

  Carter phones Shah to express support.

  11:

  Lebanon reports Musa Sadr missing.

  16:

  Tabas earthquake.

  24:

  Oil workers strike in the southern fields.

  OCTOBER

  1:

  Riots, sabotage attacks hit cities not under martial law.

  6:

  Speaking before Majles, Shah pledges more liberalization.

  Khomeini arrives in Paris.

  10–31:

  Iran’s economy crippled by strike action.

  NOVEMBER

  1:

  Shah tells U.S., UK ambassadors he may leave the country.

  2:

  White House officials hold first crisis meeting.

  4:

  Troops fire on students outside Tehran University.

  5:

  Widespread rioting, arson in central Tehran.

  6:

  Military government installed under Azhari.

  Shah tells the nation he has “heard the voice of revolution.”

  Khomeini pledges to topple the Pahlavi Dynasty.

  9:

  Sullivan’s “Thinking the Unthinkable” telegram.

  18:

  Queen Farah flies to Iraq to meet with Khoi.

  25–30:

  Queen Farah meets with Shahpur Bakhtiar.

  27:

  Khomeini’s face “appears” in the moon.

  DECEMBER

  10–11:

  Millions march during Muharram religious observances.

  12–31:

  Wealthy Iranians, foreign residents flee Iran en masse.

  27:

  Martial law collapses in Tehran amid scenes of anarchy.

  29:

  Shah replaces Azhari with Bakhtiar.

  1979

  JANUARY

  4:

  Huyser arrives in Tehran with orders to prevent coup.

  5:

  Leaders of four Western powers meet in Guadeloupe.

  6:

  Shah announces he will leave Iran for an extended “vacation.”

  Western leaders agree the Shah is finished.

  15:

  Youngest Pahlavi children fly out of Iran.

  Shah, Queen Farah throw small farewell party at Niavaran.

  16:

  Shah, Queen Farah leave Iran for the last time.

  FEBRUARY

  1:

  Khomeini returns to Iran.

  10–11:

  Islamist, leftist militias assault royalist bastions.

  Imperial Army declares neutrality.

  Rebels triumph, seize power.

  APRIL

  1:<
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  Islamic Republic declared, monarchy abolished.

  PART ONE

  LOOKING FOR RAIN

  1919–1977

  The angel said, “I am Sorush. I came

  In answer to your faith, and soon you’ll be

  The world’s king, glorious in your sovereignty:

  You’ll reign for thirty-eight long years if you

  Act righteously in everything you do.”

  He vanished, and the world has never known

  A vision like the one Khosrow was shown.

  —THE PERSIAN BOOK OF KINGS

  INTRODUCTION

  BACK TO CAIRO

  I turn to right and left, in all the earth